Comparison of Regular Adverbs

Remember two simple rules and you’ll have this mastered in no time:

1. A comparative adverb is always the neuter singular accusative of the corresponding comparative adjective. (ex. clārius)
2. The superlative adverb is just the superlative stem of the corresponding superlative adjective with –ē. (ex. clārissimē)

Here are some additional examples:

• carē, cārius, cārissimē, dearly, more dearly, most dearly
• miserē, miserius, miserrimē, wretchedly, more wretchedly, most wretchedly
• leviter, levius, levissimmē, lightly, more lightly, most lightly
• audācter, audācius, audācissimē, boldly, more boldly, most boldly
• bene, melius, optimē, well, better, best
• male, peius, pessimē, poorly, worse, worst

The Essential AG: 218

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Comparison of Adverbs: Irregular and Defective

Here are some irregular adverbs that defy the rules set up in this post.

• diū, diūtius, diūtissimē, for a long time, for a longer time, for the longest time
• potius, —— potissimum, rather, first of all
• saepe, saepius,saepissimē, often, more often/again, most often
• satis, satius, —— enough, preferable
• secus, sētius, —— otherwise, worse
• multum (or multō), magis (or mage), maximē, much, more, most
• parum, minus, minimē, not enough, less, least
• nūper, ——, nūperrimē, newly, most newly
• temperē, temperius, —— seasonably, more seasonably

Most of these are either disconnected from their corresponding adjectives (semantically), or are defective in either comparative or superlative form. However, the real outlier here is the multum/ō, magis/e, maximē set, which is an aggregate of various options. Multō is of course the ablative singular neuter for the positive adjective, and mage the neuter accusative of the comparative adjective.

Magis and maximē may also be paired with other adjectives to create their comparatives, especially in adjectives ending in -eus or -ius (in the positive.)

• idōneus, magis idōneus, maximē idōneus, fit, more fit, most fit

The Essential AG: 128, 218a

Comparison of Adjectives

There are a variety of ways to hide the stem of a adjective in its nominative form.

• baburrus, -a, -um (stem barburo-) silly
• levis, -e (stem levi-) fickle
• fēlīx (stem fēlīc-) blessed
• hebes (stem hebet-) dull

However, the majority of adjectives of all stem formations become comparatives and superlatives in the same way: with the addition of -ior (m/f) / ius (n) for comparatives, and the addition of -issimus, -a, -um for superlatives.

• baburrus, -a, -um / baburrior, -ius / barburrissimus, -a, -um
• levis, -e / levior, -ius / levissimus, -a, -um
• fēlīx / fēlīcior, -ius / fēlīcissimus, -a, -um
• hebes / hebetior, -ius / hebetissimus, -a, -um

There are a few things to note here. If an adjective is compared regularly,

• It’s case ending will always have two options (m/f or n) for the comparative and three options (m or f or n) for the superlative, regardless of how many it had for the positive.
• Stress accents will always appear on the penultimate vowel (for comparatives) or the ultimate vowel (for superlatives) of the stem.

babúrrior, baburríssimus / lévior, levísssimus / fēlícior, fēlīcíssimus / hebétior, hebetíssimus

Of course, it can always shift further forward, but never further back. The comparatives declines like so:

(photo credit, Wiktionary)

The superlatives decline like a regular first/second declension adjectives, regardless of how their positives decline:

(photo credit, Wiktionary)

The Essential AG: 120, 123-4

Comparison of Gerund and Gerundive (Ablative)

Summary of Comparison

The gerundive, or perfect passive participle, is a verbal adjective, which conveys a sense of necessity, obligation or propriety

• The gerundive may appear in any case, according to its corresponding noun

The gerund is a type of gerundive, appearing only the oblique (non-nominative) cases, used substantial as a verbal noun

• This use of the gerundive, always neuter singular, is comparable to the English gerund, which ends in -ing

For a more basic discussion of gerunds and gerundives, see the articles on ‘Gerunds’ and ‘Gerundives’ elsewhere in this blog

 

Gerunds and Gerundives with the Ablative

The ablative of gerunds and gerundives has three purposes: (1) as an ablative of manner, means, or cause, (2) after comparatives, (3) after certain prepositions

In each use, the gerund and gerundive have similar frequencies

These ablatives may take a direct object, but they do so rarely

 

Ablative of Manner, Means and Cause

• He persuades by large promises: multa pollicendō persuādet. (gerund)
• She is equal to any man in speaking Latin: Latīnē loquendō cuivīs pār est. (gerund)
• He revealed by reading these very things: hīs ipsīs legendīs ostendābat. (gerundive)

With Comparatives

• No duty is more important than repaying favors: nūllum officium referendā grātiā magis necessārium est. (gerundive)
• He enjoys reading more than writing: legendō magis quam scrībiendō fruitur. (legendō is abl. with fruor, describing manner) (gerund)

After Prepositions

• These prepositions are ab, dē, ex, in and prō 
• I want to be employed in conducting affairs: in rē gerendā versārī volō (gerundive)
• She spoke of mourning: lugendō orābat. (gerund)

 

The Essential AG: §507

 

Famous Phrase: castigat rigendō mōrēs. (one corrects custom through laughter)

[neo-Latin phrase coined by the French poet Jean de Santeul]

 

ger_ger_p3:3.pdf

Comparison of Gerund and Gerundive (Dative and Accusative)

Summary of Comparison

The gerundive, or perfect passive participle, is a verbal adjective, which conveys a sense of necessity, obligation or propriety

• The gerundive may appear in any case, according to its corresponding noun

The gerund is a type of gerundive, appearing only the oblique (non-nominative) cases, used substantial as a verbal noun

• This use of the gerundive, always neuter singular, is comparable to the English gerund, which ends in -ing

For a more basic discussion of gerunds and gerundives, see the articles on ‘Gerunds’ and ‘Gerundives’ elsewhere in this blog

 

Gerunds and Gerundives with the Dative

Gerundives, expressive purpose, appear as a dative in a few standard expressions

• He appointed a day for doing the work: diem praestitit operī faciendō.
• She had take charge of working the land: praeesse agrō colendō erat.
• The visit was for paying the fine: adventus solvendō fuit.

Both may appear as datives with certain verbs of fitness or adapability

Here, though, ad + accusative gerund/gerundive is preferred

• He discovered a sort of armor suited to the defense of the body: genus armōrum aptum tegendīs corporibus invēnit. (gerundive)
• They were suitable for carrying the instructions of the soldiers: perferndīs mīlitum mandātīs idōneus fuērunt. (gerundive)
• It was a good thinking chair: silla bona dubitandō fuit. (gerund)

The gerundive appears in various legal phrases indicating scope of office

• The participated in elections for nominating consuls: comitiīs cōnsulibus rogandīs participābunt. (comitiīs = abl. with participo)
• He was elected triumvir for planting colonies: triumvirum colōniīs dēdūcundīs allēgit. 

Gerunds and Gerundives with the Accusative

The expression ad + gerund/gerundive, expressing purpose, is incredibly common in classical Latin

The expression never takes a direct object

• You summon me to write: mē vocās ad scrībendum. (gerund)
• You live not to put off, but to confirm daring: vīvis nōn ad dēpōnendum sed ad cōnfirmandum audāciam. (gerund)
• She proceeded, having found means to undertake these things, nactus aditūs ad ea cōnanda prōfecta est. (gerundive)

 

The Essential AG: §505, 506

 

Famous Phrase: ad referendum (to be proposed)

[intermediary status of bill under the consideration of a legislative body]

 

ger_ger_p2:3.pdf

Comparison of Gerunds and Gerundives (Genitive)

Comparison of Gerunds and Gerundives (Genitive) (p1/3)

 

Summary of Comparison

The gerundive, or perfect passive participle, is a verbal adjective, which conveys a sense of necessity, obligation or propriety

• The gerundive may appear in any case, according to its corresponding noun

The gerund is a type of gerundive, appearing only the oblique (non-nominative) cases, used substantial as a verbal noun

• This use of the gerundive, always neuter singular, is comparable to the English gerund, which ends in -ing

For a more basic discussion of gerunds and gerundives, see the articles on ‘Gerunds’ and ‘Gerundives’ elsewhere in this blog

 

Gerunds and Gerundives with the Genitive

Both gerund and gerundive may appear as either an objective or subjective (possessive) genitive

• It is the best end of living: vīvendī fīnis est optimus (subjective gerund)
• She has a love for pillaging: amōrem capiendī habet. (objective gerund)
• She is the daughter of that praiseworthy general: filia laudandī imperatōris est. (subjective gerundive)

Gerunds and gerundives in the genitive may take a direct object

• I believe there is no just cause for taking up arms: nūllam causam arma capiendī esse putō. (objective gerundive)
• He demonstrated the art of distinguishing true and false: artem vēra ac falsa dīiūdicandī ostendāvit. (objective gerund)

Occasionally, they take a second objective genitive in place of the direct object

• They sought the ability to recover themselves: suī colligendī facultātem petīvērunt.

The gerundive with causā or gratiā (abl.) expresses purpose

• He left for the sake of avoiding suspicion: abiit vītandae suspīciōnis causā.
• She was silent in order to deceive: simulandī gratiā tacuit. 

 

The Essential AG: §504

 

Famous Phrase: in statū nascendī (in the state of being born)

 

ger_ger_p1:3.pdf

[concept in cellular biology]

Uses of Quam (Subjunctive)

Uses of Quam (part 2 of 4)

Summary of Use

Quam has many and various uses in Latin

It appears most commonly as the standard coordinating conjunction of comparison between two adjectives, adverbs or clauses (part 1)

• Two things compared with quam will always appear in the same case
• There are better and worse (common and less common) ways to compare with quam

The phrases quam ut, quam quī, quam sī and quam (alone) may also initiate a subjunctive statement (part 2)

• These include clauses of purpose, characteristic and comparison

Quam and its compounds have several other functions (part 3)

Subjunctive Uses of Quam

The phrases quam ut, quam quī and (rarely) quam alone, following a comparative, initiate clauses of characteristic

• The statues of Canachus are too stiff to represent nature: Canachī sīgna rigidiōra sunt quam ut imitentur.
• They cut the threes too large more a soldier to carry: maiōrēs arborēs caedēbant quam quās ferre mīles posset.

These often fit the English construction too x to y (too big to fail)

These phrases may also initiate result clauses

• He endured all rather than betray: perpessus est omnia potius quam indicāret.

Quam sī may initiate a clause of characteristic without a comparative

• This should be translated as if or as though
• He sleeps as if he were a stone: dormit quam sī saxum esset.

The Essential AG: 535c, 571a

Famous Phrase: bonam ego quam beatam me esse nimio dici mavolo

[I would rather be called good than well-off] -Plautus, Poenulus, 303

quam_uses_p2.pdf

Uses of Quam (Comparisons)

Uses of Quam (part 1 of 3)

Origin of Quam

Quam is derived from the feminine singular accusative of the interrogative pronoun quī, quae, quod 

Summary of Use

Quam has many and various uses in Latin

It appears most commonly as the standard means of comparison between two adjectives, adverbs or clauses (part 1)

• Two things compared with quam will always appear in the same case
• There are better and worse (common and less common) ways to compare with quam

The phrases quam ut, quam quī, quam sī and quam (alone) may also initiate a subjunctive statement (part 2)

• These include clauses of purpose, characteristic and comparison

The compouds quamquam and quamvīs are concessive particles, taking either subjunctive or indicative clauses (part 3)

Quam and its compounds have several other functions (part 4)

Comparative Quam

Placing quam between two comparative adjectives or adverbs is a standard method of comparison

• The line was more long than broad: longior quam lātior aciēs erat.

Placing magis quam between two positive adjectives or adverbs is also common

• She is more renowned than is honorable for a queen: clārā magis quam honestā reginae est.

Placing quam (alone) between two positives or a comparative and a positive is a “rarer and less elegant” means of making a comparison (AG, 292 n)

• The prophet is more eloquent than wise: vatēs disertus quam sapiēns est.

Quam may also compare one clause to another

• I never saw a shrewder man than Phormio: hominem callidiōrem vīdī nēminem quam Phormiōnem.
• It is better to suffer than to do an injustice: accipere quam facere praestat iniuriam.

Quam or the Ablative of Comparison?

Where a noun, pronoun, adjective or adverb in the nominative or accusative is the subject of comparison, the ablative of comparison is standard

• Silver is less precious than gold, gold than virtues: vīlius argentum est aurō, virtūtibus aurum.

Where these are not in the nominative or accusative, or where the relative (comparative) statement is a clause, quam is preferred

• The old man is in this respect in a better position than a young man: senex est eō meliōre condiciōne quam adulēscēns.
• For examples of quam with comparative clauses, see (3.4) above

Be warned–the poets walk all over this rule

cariōr est illīs homō quam sibi : man is dearer to those (the gods) than to himself

(Juvenval, Satires, 10.350)

 

quam_uses_p1.pdf